麻煩大大門給我詳細的翻譯，謝謝喔
１：Do you try to pick a topic that will allow you to use what you know rather than one that will force you to use what you don't know?
Do you develop an outline before you start writing?
Do you write a draft first and review it before turning
in the final version?
Do you try to use the vocabulary and grammar you already know rather than look up most of the words in a dictionary?
Do you make sure that you have a correct model for the type of writing you are going to do, e.g., the appropriate form for an invitation or the correct form to address people?
If you score high on this section (20-25), you are using effective writing techniques. If your score Is low (less than 15), you need to improve your writing strategies.
We hope that this chapter helped you take stock of language learning strategics that you have been using thus far in handling various tasks. In the next five chapters, we will present a systematic overview of many useful strategies that will allow you to approach language learning in an effective way.
In Chapters 12-15, you will find many useful strategies for learning vocab¬ulary and grammar as they apply to the skills of listening, reading, speak¬ing, and writing. However, because vocabulary and grammar ate essential for the development of all these skills, we will first present them in isola¬tion and then return to them later when discussing their role in the con¬texts of listening, reading, speaking, and writing.
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING VOCABULARY
One cannot speak, understand, read, or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words. Therefore, vocabulary learning is at the heart of mastering a foreign language. There are two general ways in which people learn vocabulary.
Direct approach. In direct vocabulary learning, students focus their attention on learning words in lists or completing various vocabu¬lary exercises. Most learners use this approach to learn frequently used words that are needed for survival skills in the language. The direct approach is time- and effort-consuming; therefore, it is fortunate that the number of words that are used with high frequency in this domain i.s limited.
Indirect approach. Diiect vocabulary learning becomes imprac¬tical simply because there are just too many words to learn. Since a lot or
vocabulary is learned through reading and listening, you need to adopt
２：
HOW TO BE A MORE SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNER
strategies for dealing with unfamiliar words indirectly instead of memo¬rizing them. In indirect vocabulary learning, your attention will be focused on performing some other language task, such as conveying or trying to understand a spoken or written message. In the process, you will most likely begin to learn many new vocabulary items.
In this section, we would like to introduce you to some direct and indirect vocabulary-learning techniques that others have found to be effective. You should experiment with them and adopt any strategy that works for you.
Direct Approach
Strive for mastery. Whatever technique(s) you might be using, always work towards 100% mastery and test yourself to see if you have achieved it. This 100% on immediate recall will probably drop to 75% recall tomorrow and even lower a week later. Always check your reten¬tion right after you have studied and a few days later.
Put the words and their definitions on individual cards. Include a sample sentence that illustrates how the word may be used in context, particularly if it is a verb. Study the words in varying order. Check your retention when you have finished studying. Find out if commercial flash cards are available for the language you are studying.
Say the words aloud or write them over and over again as you study. Never work with words in the same order, because those at the beginning and end of the list will be remembered better than those in the middle.
Compose sentences with the words you are studying. Try dif¬ferent contexts, and check with your teacher.
Tape record the words and their definition, if you prefer to learn through the ear. Then listen to the tape as many times as you need to achieve 100% retention on a self-test.
Color-code words by parts of speech, if you prefer to learn through the eye. Remember that nouns are easier to remember than adjectives, and that adjectives, in turn, are easier to recall than verbs. Highlight words that cause you the most trouble so that you can give them extra attention. If you are working with word cards, put the cards with these words in a separate pile and review them several times.
Use Mnemonics
Mnemonics are techniques that make memorization easier by organizing individual items into patterns and linking things together. There are many kinds of mnemonic devices. You should experiment with different ones to see which work best for you. Here are some you may want to try,
CHAPTER 11 Vocabulary and Grammar
Use rhyming. Items that rhyme are often easier to remember. When memorizing a list of words, see if some rhyme with each other or with other words that you know. For instance, in Russian, nash ("our"), vash ("your") and nas ("us"), yas ("you") should be learned together so that if one is named, the other one will instantly come to mind.
Use alliteration. Items that start with the same letter(s) or sound(s) may be learned together for easier recall. For instance, English question words start with the letters wh-, e.g., who, what. In Spanish, question words often start with qu-, for instance, quien ("who"), que ("what"). Noting such similarities may help you in both memorization and recall.
Associate words with the physical world. Any mental image you can form for a word can be helpful, for a word is more easily learned if it can be associated with color, size, smell, feel, or some other physical characteristic. For instance, when trying to remember names of vegetables and fruits, you can associate some with being red and round, others with being long and green.
Associate words with their functions. Sometimes it helps to associate words with their functions. For example, when memorizing words for furniture, you can group them according to which are used for sitting, which for lying, and so on. You can also organize words by their conversational function. For example, have one list for words of greet¬ing, another for words of parting, and a third for thanking.
Use natural word associations, such as opposites. In your own language, some words tend to be naturally associated. For example, given the word cold and asked for another word that instantly comes to mind, most people will mention hot. Word pairs like brother-sister, big-small, and stand-lie are automatically associated in our minds. Therefore, when learning words in a foreign language, try to form pairs so that when one is mentioned, the other instantly comes to mind.
Learn classes of words. Sometimes it is helpful to learn words by class, such as color words, days of the week, numbers from one to ten, fruits and vegetables, and professions. However, try to memorize them in several different orders so that you can retrieve any one of them easily.
Learn related words. Groups that share a common root, such as white, whiten, and whitish, are more easily memorized together than are groups of unrelated words. If you have a list of words to memorize, try to organize them into groups that share a common root, or try to link a new word with previously learned words that share the same root. At the same time, learn the meaning of some common prefixes and suffixes. For instance, the prefix pre- in. English means "before", therefore, the term to preview means "to view before." In Russian, the verb videt' means "to see" and the prefix pred- means "before." So what does the Russian verb predvidet' mean?
３：
MOW TO BE A MORE SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNER
rule? Or is it that you have totally misunderstood the rule? Or could it be that you have not learned the rule boundaries—that is, its exceptions. You can avoid making the same mistakes by checking the textbook, a reference grammar, or by asking your teacher for an explanation or clari¬fication.
Note whether additional work has any effect on your perfor¬mance. Sometimes extra practice—such as doing grammar drills—may not improve your speaking accuracy. However, using language in real-life situations may be very beneficial. The amount of time spent may not be as important as finding and using the type of activity that helps your learning.
Be patient. No language is grammar-free, although some lan¬guages have more complex grammatical systems than others. It is impos¬sible to learn, much less remember all the rules in a limited period of time. It takes quite a long time before you are able to speak and write without grammatical errors. Work on your grammar diligently but patiently. One rule at a time and lots of practice and reviewing are good operating
GETTING STARTED
What is Listening Comprehension?
Listening, quite possibly, is the most important of the languag since people spend approximately 60% of their time listening. Tl important first step in learning a foreign language is to make an < listen. This is much like the process you followed as a child. You for a long while before attempting to speak. In addition, listening \ you an opportunity to get a "feel" for the language and will h improve your overall ability in it. If you don't learn to listen effc you will not be able to participate in conversations in the forei guage.
Interactive Listening
Most listening occurs in the course of conversations. This kind of 1 is referred to as interactive because participants alternately play thi speakers and listeners. In interactive listening, one can intervene ing additional questions and seeking clarification, repetition, or i Ing. If you are studying a foreign language in a classroom, y undoubtedly have a chance to practice interactive listening in classroom conversations, which will help you get started in ac this important skill.
４：
HOW TO BE A MORE SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNER
Group words by grammatical class. It may help to organize a
list of words by parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, verbs, and so on. Nouns are usually easier to memorize than adjectives; adjectives, in turn, are easier to memorize than verbs. Therefore, you may want to spend extra time on the more difficult classes of words.
Associate words with context. You can also associate a new word with the context in which it was used. Thus, when trying to remember a word, you can think of its context and the word will come back to you. In trying to remember the French word for pancakes, think of the time you ate pancakes in a French restaurant or a friend's home. You can also think of the dialog or text about food that you have studied.
Indirect Approach
Read a series of texts on a related topic. If you read a series of related articles, you will be exposed to vocabulary that is repeated fre¬quently. Carry over of vocabulary from one text to another will help you recognize the words when you next see them. In addition, seeing the same words in different contexts will help you learn the range of meanings asso¬ciated with these words.
Guess the meaning of words from context. In any passage, there are a few words whose meaning could be inferred from context, pro¬vided that you are willing to consider the available clues. For instance, if you ran into the word sambar in the sentence They saw the antlers of a large sambar through the lush greenery of the jungle, and you had never seen this word before, you might use the clues about the size, the antlers and the fact that it was in the jungle to guess that sambar is, prob¬ably, a large animal with antlers that lives in tropical forests. We will treat word attack strategies in greater detail in Chapter 13.
Break up the word into components. By breaking up words into roots, prefixes, and suffixes, learners can infer the meaning of words they have never seen before. For instance, you can understand the word reval-idator, a word you have never seen before, because you know the mean¬ing of the prefix re-, the root -validat-, and the suffix -or. In fact, 14,000 words in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary are made up of 20 prefixes and 14 roots! In order to be able to use the component strategy, you should be able to break up words into parts, to know the meaning of the parts, and to see a connection between the meaning of the parts and the context in which the word is used.
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING GRAMMAR
Grammar is important because it allows you to express your thoughts and intentions in a way that is acceptable to native soeakers.
grammar mistakes can make yout speaking and writing difficult to under stand. An example in which grammar affects meaning directly is if yot
use a past tense verb instead of a future tense verb.
Be on the lookout for rules. Don't wait for someone to poin out a rule; look for it yourself. Sometimes the rules that you can formulat for yourself will be more helpful than those given in your textbook or pre sented by the teacher, because they are organized in ways that are cleare to you. In addition, having found them yourself, you may be better abl to remember and apply them.
Learn the rules. Although children acquire their first languag without conscious learning of grammar rules, most adult foreign languag learners need to understand the grammar rules of the language they ;ir studying. Make sure that you understand how a particular rule works, Thi will reduce the amount of memorization you will have to do.
Organize. After having constructed your own grammar tables in way that makes the most sense to you, make sure that you review then and add any new information that you may have acquired. For instance you can make a table of verb conjugations in different tenses, noui declensions, or prepositions. Each time you learn a new word that belong to a particular category you have set up, enter it in your table. This is L'spt cially important if the word is an exception to a rule and needs speci;: attention.
Experiment. As mentioned in Chapter 8, people often accept a nil given to them at face value and do not try to apply it to different word or different situations. Experimenting with rules is necessary because mo; of them have boundaries that must be discovered to avoid mistakes. Th way to find the boundaries is to keep applying a rule until you discovt that it no longer works. For example, once you learn that Spanish noun ending in -o are generally masculine and take the article el (el muchacht "the boy") while nouns ending in -a are generally feminineand take th article la, (lamuchacha, "the girl"), you can keep applying this rule unt. you discover exceptions such as la mano, "the hand" (not el mano), an< el programa, "the program" (not la programa).
Work towards mastery when doing grammar exercises When doing oral grammar exercises in class or in the language lab, care fully focus on the grammar. At this point, every one of the teacher's coi rections or the correct responses on tape should be accurately repeated Many students habitually listen passively to the teacher's corrections c the models on tape without repeating the correct form. This is not a gooi strategy since by repeating the corrected version you give yourself ai opportunity to learn it. When you are working on a grammar point, striv to be 100% correct. In this way, when your attention is diverted to othi considerations, you will be more likely to recail the correct form.
Avoid repeated errors. Try to understand why you consistentl
５：
HOW TO BE A MORE SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNER
Group words by grammatical class. It may help to organize a list of words by parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, verbs, and so on. Nouns are usually easier to memorize than adjectives; adjectives, in turn, are easier to memorize than verbs. Therefore, you may want to spend extra time on the more difficult classes of words.
Associate words with context. You can also associate a new word with the context in which it was used. Thus, when trying to remember a word, you can think of its context and the word will come back to you. In trying to remember the French word for pancakes, think of the time you ate pancakes in a French restaurant or a friend's home. You can also think of the dialog or text about food that you have studied.
Indirect Approach
Read a series of texts on a related topic. If you read a series of related articles, you will be exposed to vocabulary that is repeated fre¬quently. Carry over of vocabulary from one text to another will help you recognize the words when you next see them. In addition, seeing the same words in different contexts will help you learn the range of meanings asso¬ciated with these words.
Guess the meaning of words from context. In any passage, there are a few words whose meaning could be inferred from context, pro¬vided that you are willing to consider the available clues. For instance, if you ran into the word sambar in the sentence They saw the antlers of a large sambar through the lush greenery of the jungle, and you had never seen this word before, you might use the clues about the size, the antlers and the fact that it was in the jungle to guess that sambar is, prob¬ably, a large animal with antlers that lives in tropical forests. We will treat word attack strategies in greater detail in Chapter 13.
Break up the word into components. By breaking up words into roots, prefixes, and suffixes, learners can infer the meaning of words they have never seen before. For instance, you can understand the word reval-idator, a word you have never seen before, because you know the mean¬ing of the prefix re-, the root -validat-, and the suffix -or. In fact, 14,000 words in Webster's Collegiate Dictionary are made up of 20 prefixes and 14 roots! In order to be able to use the component strategy, you should be able to break up words into parts, to know the meaning of the parts, and to see a connection between the meaning of the parts and the context in which the word is used.
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING GRAMMAR
Grammar is important because it allows you to express your thoughts and
intentions in a wav that is arrpntahlp tn native snoakorc QnTr.o+;»T.oc
grammar mistakes can make your speaking and writing difficult to under¬stand. An example in which grammar affects meaning directly is if you use a past tense verb instead of a future tense verb.
Be on the lookout for rules. Don't wait for someone to point out a rule; look for it yourself. Sometimes the rules that you can formulate for yourself will be more helpful than those given in your textbook or pre¬sented by the teacher, because they are organized in ways that are clearer to you. In addition, having found them yourself, you may be better able to remember and apply them.
Learn the rules. Although children acquire their first language without conscious learning of grammar rules, most adult foreign language learners need to understand the grammar rules of the language they are studying. Make sure that you understand how a particular rule works. This will reduce the amount of memorization you will have to do.
Organize. After having constructed your own grammar tables in a way that makes the most sense to you, make sure that you review them and add any new information that you may have acquired. For instance, you can make a table of verb conjugations in different tenses, noun declensions, or prepositions. Each time you learn a new word that belongs to a particular category you have set up, enter it in your table. This is espe¬cially important if the word is an exception to a rule and needs specia attention.
Experiment. As mentioned in Chapter 8, people often accept a rule given to them at face value and do not try to apply it to different words or different situations. Experimenting with rules is necessary because mosi of them have boundaries that must be discovered to avoid mistakes. The way to find the boundaries is to keep applying a rule until you discovei that it no longer works. For example, once you learn that Spanish noun; ending in -o are generally masculine and take the article el (el muchacho "the boy") while nouns ending in -a are generally feminine and take the article la, (la muchacha, "the girl"), you can keep applying this rule unti you discover exceptions such as la mano, "the hand" (not el mano), anc el programa, "the program" (not la programa).
Work towards mastery when doing grammar exercises When doing oral grammar exercises in class or in the language lab, care fully focus on the grammar. At this point, every one of the teacher's cor rections or the correct responses on tape should be accurately repeated Many students habitually listen passively to the teacher's corrections o the models on tape without repeating the correct form. This is not a gooc strategy since by repeating the corrected version you give yourself ar opportunity to learn it. When you are working on a grammar point, strivi to be 100% correct. In this way, when your attention is diverted to othe considerations, you will be more likely to recall the correct form.
Avoid repeated errors. Try to understand why you consistent!;
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６：
HOW TO BE A MORE SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNER
strategies for dealing with unfamiliar words indirectly instead of memo¬rizing them. In indirect vocabulary learning, your attention will be focused on performing some other language task, such as conveying or trying to understand a spoken or written message. In the process, you will most likely begin to learn many new vocabulary items.
In this section, we would like to introduce you to some direct and indirect vocabulary-learning techniques that others have found to be effective. You should experiment with them and adopt any strategy that works for you.
Direct Approach
Strive for mastery. Whatever technique(s) you might be using, always work towards 100% mastery and test yourself to see if you have achieved it. This 100% on immediate recall will probably drop to 75% recall tomorrow and even lower a week later. Always check your reten¬tion right after you have studied and a few days later.
Put the words and their definitions on individual cards. Include a sample sentence that illustrates how the word may be used in context, particularly if it is a verb. Study the words in varying order. Check your retention when you have finished studying. Find out if commercial flash cards are available for the language you are studying.
Say the words aloud or write them over and over again as you study. Never work with words in the same order, because those at the beginning and end of the list will be remembered better than those in the middle.
Compose sentences with the words you are studying. Try dif¬ferent contexts, and check with your teacher.
Tape record the words and their definition, if you prefer to learn through the ear. Then listen to the tape as many times as you need to achieve 100% retention on a self-test.
Color-code words by parts of speech, if you prefer to learn through the eye. Remember that nouns are easier to remember than adjectives, and that adjectives, in turn, are easier to recall than verbs. Highlight words that cause you the most trouble so that you can give them extra attention. If you are working with word cards, put the cards with these words in a separate pile and review them several times.
Use Mnemonics
Mnemonics are techniques that make memorization easier by organizing individual items into patterns and linking things together. There are many kinds of mnemonic devices. You should experiment with different ones to see which work best for you. Here are some you may want to try.
Use rhyming. Items that rhyme are often easier to remember. When memorizing a list of words, see if some rhyme with each other or with other words that you know. For instance, in Russian, nash ("our"), vash ("your") and nas ("us"), yas ("you") should be learned together so that if one is named, the other one will instantly come to mind.
Use alliteration. Items that start with the same letter(s) or sound(s) may be learned together for easier recall. For instance, English question words start with the letters wh-, e.g., who, what. In Spanish, question words often start with qu-, for instance, quien ("who"), que ("what"). Noting such similarities may help you in both memorization and recall.
Associate words with the physical world. Any mental image you can form for a word can be helpful, for a word is more easily learned if it can be associated with color, size, smell, feel, or some other physical characteristic. For instance, when trying to remember names of vegetables and fruits, you can associate some with being red and round, others with being long and green.
Associate words with their functions. Sometimes it helps to associate words with their functions. For example, when memorizing words for furniture, you can group them according to which are used for sitting, which for lying, and so on. You can also organize words by their conversational function. For example, have one list for words of greet¬ing, another for words of parting, and a third for thanking.
Use natural word associations, such as opposites. In your own language, some words tend to be naturally associated. For example, given the word cold and asked for another word that instantly comes to mind, most people will mention hot. Word pairs like brother-sister, big-small, and stand-lie are automatically associated in our minds. Therefore, when learning words in a foreign language, try to form pairs so that when one is mentioned, the other instantly comes to mind.
Learn classes of words. Sometimes it is helpful to learn words by class, such as color words, days of the week, numbers from one to ten, fruits and vegetables, and professions. However, try to memorize them in several different orders so that you can retrieve any one of them easily.
Learn related words. Groups that share a common root, such as white, whiten, and whitish, are more easily memorized together than are groups of unrelated words. If you have a list of words to memorize, try to organize them into groups that share a common root, or try to link a new word with previously learned words that share the same root. At the same time, learn the meaning of some common prefixes and suffixes. Foi instance, the prefix pre- in English means "before", therefore, the term to preview means "to view before." In Russian, the verb videt' means "to see" and the prefix pred- means "before." So what does the Russian verb predvidet' mean?
[ 本帖最後由 robert1984 於 2008-4-4 01:12 編輯 ] |
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